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The literature – in both New Zealand and elsewhere – uses a variety of terms from distance learning to virtual learning to online learning to e-learning to describe education provided where the student and teacher are geographically or temporally distant from one another (Barbour, 2019). However, the Education and Training Act 2020 refers to distance schools (Government of New Zealand, 2024a). As such, for the purposes of this report the term distance learning will be used to refer to all modalities of education where the student and teacher are geographically separated from one another.
There was also a desire to adopt consistent terms to describe the entities that provide distance learning. The Ministry of Education, through a variety of policy documents and contracted works, has commonly used the term ‘organisation’ to refer to entities like the New Zealand Principals Federation, the Special Education New Zealand, and even the Flexible Learning Association of New Zealand (just to name a few). Similarly, the New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) uses the term ‘organisation’ to refer to any entity that offers NZQA programming (which does apply to some distance learning entities, but is also limiting in comparison to the full range of programming that these entities provide). During the discussions around the introduction, and eventual repeal, of the Communities of Online Learning the terms ‘provider’ was used to describe both public (e.g., Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu and the Virtual Learning Network) and private entities that provided or brokered distance learning opportunities (Government of New Zealand, 2017; 2018a; 2018b).
In an effort to further clarify the nomenclature around distance learning in the schools sector in New Zealand, an examination of the landscape in New Zealand revealed that there were two types of distance learning providers and the following taxonomy was developed.
Table 1. Nature of distance learning providers
| School | Public1 | Distance school |
| Special institution | ||
| State school | ||
| Tertiary institution | ||
| Private | ||
| Program | Non-profit | |
| For profit | ||
The first type were providers who were defined as schools within the Education and Training Act 2020. The only type of school specifically described in the legislation to provide distance learning is a ‘distance school.’ However, there are other types of public and private schools that also provide distance learning. For example, in Schedule 2 of the Education and Training Act 2020 there are nine ‘special institutions’ that are known to provide distance learning. Similarly, there is at least one brick-and-mortar ‘state school’ (or regular public school) that is known to provide distance learning (although there is likely more activity of this nature that is currently unknown to this study). While there are none at present, as outlined in the “History of Distance Learning in New Zealand,” there have been some ‘tertiary institutions’ that have provided distance learning to students in the school sector. Finally, the most common provider of distance learning – at least numerically – are ‘private schools,’ which are defined as schools registered under section 214 of the Education and Training Act 2020 (which allows them to charge tuition for enrolment, among other things).
The second type of provider is not referenced in the legislation. Within the broader literature in the field, providers that do not have Ministry or Department of Education school identification codes are often labelled as ‘programmes’ (e.g., the Michigan Virtual School in the United States or the Centre for Distance Learning and Innovation in Canada). One of the main distinctions between a school and a programme is that because programmes do not have school identification codes they are unable to grant credit, provide transcripts, and other formal functions that schools are able to perform. Both within the New Zealand context, and within the broader field as a whole, programmes are operationalised in any different ways. In some instances programmes offer distance learning course directly, whereas in other instances the programme brokers distance learning offerings from a variety of individual providers (or some combination of both options). In some cases programmes employ teachers directly, in other cases the teachers may be seconded to the programme, and in some cases the programme may simply coordinate teachers employed by other entities. The one thing most programmes do have in common is that there is a central administration that oversees the activities of the programme. Additionally, most programmes have a specific identity – both internally and within the constituencies that the programme serves. For the purpose of this project, the label of programme was further delineated into a non-profit category (i.e., those programmes established as charitable trusts) and a for profit category (i.e., those programmes that were set-up as private enterprises).
References
Barbour, M. K. (2019). The landscape of K-12 online learning: Examining the state of the field. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance education (4th ed.) (pp. 521-542). Routledge.
Government of New Zealand. (2017). Education (update) amendment bill. https://bills.parliament.nz/v/6/b1db42f5-517b-41ad-a455-33140136ebb7
Government of New Zealand. (2018a). Education amendment bill (no 2). https://bills.parliament.nz/v/6/a429ef71-9c35-440d-8471-ee5612f66ac9
Government of New Zealand. (2018b). Education report: Proposed amendments to communities of online learning. https://www.education.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Ed-Report-Proposed-amendments-to-Communities-of-Online-Learning.pdf
Government of New Zealand. (2024a). Education and training act 2020. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2020/0038/latest/LMS170676.html
1 There are additional types of public schools in the Education and Training Act 2020 beyond these three. However, at this time those other types of public schools do not provide distance learning.